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Main article:Historically inhabited by the, the written history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the of Ancient Iran. In the 8th century AD, -speaking tribes moved from into present-day Central Asia. Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population. In the 10th century, the name 'Turkmen' was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted and began to occupy present-day Turkmenistan. There they were under the dominion of the, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day and Turkmenistan. Turkmen soldiers in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day and eastern.
Helmet (15th century)In the 12th century, and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire. In the next century, the took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups. The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the Turkmen tribes, who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors. By the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary,. Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period. In the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Turkmen group resulted in that group's dispersal by the Uzbek rulers. According to Paul R.
Spickard, 'Prior to the Russian conquest, the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian.' City of in, 1890forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century. From their base at Krasnovodsk (now ), the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates.
In 1881, the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the, and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed, together with adjoining Uzbek territory, into the. In 1916, the Russian Empire's participation in resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia. Although the of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined, and Uzbeks in the so-called against the rule of the newly formed.
In 1924, the was formed from the tsarist province of. By the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life. The of 1948 killed over 110,000 people, amounting to two-thirds of the city's population. A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes. Photo by between 1905 and 1915.During the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events.
Even the major that shook Russia in the late 1980s had little impact. However, in 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Turkmenistan declared sovereignty as a response to perceived exploitation. Although Turkmenistan was ill-prepared for independence and then- leader preferred to preserve the Soviet Union, in October 1991, the fragmentation of that entity forced him to call a national referendum that approved independence. On 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan's chief of state, replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a pervasive.
A 1994 referendum and legislation in 1999 abolished further requirements for the president to stand for re-election (although in 1992 he completely dominated the only in which he ran, as he was the only candidate and no one else was allowed to run for the office), making him effectively. During his tenure, Niyazov conducted frequent purges of public officials and abolished organizations deemed threatening. Throughout the post-Soviet era, Turkmenistan has taken a neutral position on almost all international issues.
Niyazov eschewed membership in regional organizations such as the, and in the late 1990s he maintained relations with the and its chief opponent in, the. He offered limited support to the following the. In 2002 an alleged assassination attempt against Niyazov led to a new wave of security restrictions, dismissals of government officials, and restrictions placed on the media. Niyazov accused exiled former foreign minister of having planned the attack.Between 2002 and 2004, serious tension arose between Turkmenistan and because of bilateral disputes and Niyazov's implication that Uzbekistan had a role in the 2002 assassination attempt. In 2004, a series of bilateral treaties restored friendly relations. In the, only Niyazov's party was represented, and no participated. In 2005, Niyazov exercised his dictatorial power by closing all hospitals outside and all rural libraries.
The year 2006 saw intensification of the trends of arbitrary policy changes, shuffling of top officials, diminishing economic output outside the oil and gas sector, and isolation from regional and world organizations. China was among a very few nations to whom Turkmenistan made significant overtures. The sudden death of Niyazov at the end of 2006 left a complete vacuum of power, as, comparable to the of eternal president of, had precluded the naming of a successor.
Deputy Prime Minister, who was named interim head of government, won the held in early February 2007. He was with 97% of the vote. Politics. Parade celebrating the 20th anniversary ofAfter 69 years as part of the (including 67 years as a union republic), Turkmenistan declared its independence on 27 October 1991., a former bureaucrat of the, ruled Turkmenistan from 1985, when he became head of the, until his death in 2006. He retained absolute control over the country after the.
On 28 December 1999, Niyazov was declared President for Life of Turkmenistan by the Mejlis (parliament), which itself had taken office a week earlier in elections that included only candidates hand-picked by President Niyazov. No opposition candidates were allowed.Since the December 2006 death of Niyazov, Turkmenistan's leadership has made tentative moves to open up the country.
His successor, President, repealed some of Niyazov's most idiosyncratic policies, including banning opera and the circus for being 'insufficiently Turkmen'. In education, Berdimuhamedow's government increased basic education to ten years from nine years, and higher education was extended from four years to five. It also increased contacts with the West, which is eager for access to the country's natural gas riches.The politics of Turkmenistan take place in the framework of a, with the both. Under Niyazov, Turkmenistan had a; however, in September 2008, the People's Council unanimously passed a resolution adopting a new. The latter resulted in the abolition of the Council and a significant increase in the size of Parliament in December 2008 and also permits the formation of multiple political parties.The former Communist Party, now known as the, is the dominant party. The second party, the was established in August 2012.
Political gatherings are illegal unless government sanctioned. In 2013, the first multi-party Parliamentary Elections in Turkmenistan.
Turkmenistan was a one-party state from 1991 to 2012; however, the 2013 elections were widely seen as mere window dressing. In practice, all parties in parliament operate jointly under the direction of the DPT. There are no true opposition parties in the Turkmen parliament.
Foreign relations. Main article:Turkmenistan has been widely criticised for human rights abuses and has imposed severe restrictions on foreign travel for its citizens.
Discrimination against the country's ethnic minorities remains in practice. Universities have been encouraged to reject applicants with non-Turkmen surnames, especially ethnic Russians. It is forbidden to teach the customs and language of the, an ethnic minority.
The same happens to Uzbeks, though the was formerly taught in some national schools.According to 's 2014 World Press Freedom Index, Turkmenistan had the 3rd worst press freedom conditions in the world (178/180 countries), just before. It is considered to be one of the '10 Most Censored Countries'.
Each broadcast under Niyazov began with a pledge that the broadcaster's tongue will shrivel if he slanders the country, flag, or president.Religious minorities are discriminated against for and practicing their religion by imprisonment, preventing foreign travel, confiscating copies of Christian literature or defamation. Many detainees who have been arrested for exercising their freedom of religion or belief, were tortured and subsequently sentenced to imprisonment, many of them without a court decision. Acts are illegal in Turkmenistan.In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Turkmenistan, have signed a joint letter to the defending China's in the region. Restrictions on free and open communication Despite the launch of Turkmenistan's first ——in April 2015, the banned all in Turkmenistan the same month. The statement issued by the government indicated that all existing satellite dishes would have to be removed or destroyed—despite the communications receiving antennas having been legally installed since 1995—in an effort by the government to fully block access of the population to many 'hundreds of independent international media outlets which are currently accessible in the country only through satellite dishes, including all leading international news channels in different languages. The main target of this campaign is, the Turkmen-language service of.
It is the only independent source of information about Turkmenistan and the world in the and is widely listened to in the country.' Administrative divisions. Turkmenistan is divided into five provinces or welayatlar (singular ) and one capital city district. The provinces are subdivided into districts ( etraplar, sing. Etrap), which may be either counties or cities. According to the (Article 16 in the 2008 Constitution, Article 47 in the 1992 Constitution), some cities may have the status of welaýat (province) or etrap (district).DivisionCapital cityAreaPop (2005)KeyAshgabat CityTM-S470 km 2 (180 sq mi)871,500TM-A97,160 km 2 (37,510 sq mi)939,7001TM-B139,270 km 2 (53,770 sq mi)553,5002TM-D73,430 km 2 (28,350 sq mi)1,370,4003TM-L93,730 km 2 (36,190 sq mi)1,334,5004TM-M87,150 km 2 (33,650 sq mi)1,480,4005Climate. Map of TurkmenistanAt 488,100 km 2 (188,500 sq mi), Turkmenistan is the world's 52nd-largest country.
It is slightly smaller than and somewhat larger than the US state of. It lies between latitudes and, and longitudes and.Over 80% of the country is covered by the. The center of the country is dominated by the and the Karakum Desert.
The, along the southwestern border, reaches 2,912 metres (9,554 ) at Kuh-e Rizeh (Mount Rizeh).The Great Balkhan Range in the west of the country and the on the southeastern border with Uzbekistan are the only other significant elevations. The Great Balkhan Range rises to 1,880 metres (6,170 ft) at and the highest summit in Turkmenistan is in the Kugitangtau Range – 3,137 metres (10,292 ft).The mountain range forms most of the border between Turkmenistan and Iran. Rivers include the, the, and the.The climate is mostly arid desert with temperature ranges and little rainfall.
Winters are mild and dry, with most precipitation falling between January and May. The area of the country with the heaviest precipitation is the Kopet Dag Range.The Turkmen shore along the is 1,748 kilometres (1,086 mi) long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no natural access to the ocean, although the allows shipping access to and from the.The major cities include, (formerly Krasnovodsk) and.Economy.
Featured on the obsolete 10,000 manat banknote.President Niyazov spent much of the country's revenue on extensively renovating cities, Ashgabat in particular. Corruption watchdogs voiced particular concern over the management of Turkmenistan's currency reserves, most of which are held in off-budget funds such as the Foreign Exchange Reserve Fund in the Deutsche Bank in, according to a report released in April 2006 by London-based non-governmental organization.According to the decree of the Peoples' Council of 14 August 2003, and will be subsidized for citizens up to 2030. Under current regulations, every citizen is entitled to 35 kilowatt hours of electricity and 50 cubic meters of natural gas each month. The state also provides 250 liters (66 gallons) of water per day. In addition car drivers were entitled to 120 litres of free petrol a month until 1 July 2014.
Drivers of buses, lorries and tractors could get 200 litres of fuel and motorcyclists and scooter riders 40 litres free. On 5 September 2006, after Turkmenistan threatened to cut off supplies, Russia agreed to raise the price it pays for Turkmen natural gas from $65 to $100 per 1,000 cubic meters.
Two-thirds of Turkmen gas goes through the Russian. Natural gas and export routes. The project is purposed to transport natural gas from Turkmenistan to member countries.As of May 2011, the has the second-largest volume of gas in the world, after the field in the Persian Gulf. Reserves at the are estimated at around 21.2 trillion cubic metres. The Turkmenistan Natural Gas Company , under the auspices of the Ministry of Oil and Gas, controls gas extraction in the country. Gas production is the most dynamic and promising sector of the national economy.
In 2010 Ashgabat started a policy of diversifying export routes for its raw materials. China is set to become the largest buyer of gas from Turkmenistan over the coming years as a pipeline linking the two countries, through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, reaches full capacity. As of 2019, China is the biggest importer of Turkmen natural gas and Ashgabat's main external financial donor. In addition to supplying Russia, China and Iran, Ashgabat took concrete measures to accelerate progress in the construction of the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan and India pipeline. Turkmenistan has previously estimated the cost of the project at $3.3 billion.On 21 May 2010, president unexpectedly signed a decree stating that companies from Turkmenistan will build an internal East-West gas pipeline allowing the transfer of gas from the biggest deposits in Turkmenistan (Dowlatabad and Yoloten) to the Caspian coast. The East-West pipeline is planned to be 773-kilometre (483-mile) long and have a carrying capacity of 30 bn m³ annually, at a cost of between one and one and a half billion US dollars.
The Trans-Caspian pipeline (TCP) project, backed by the European Union, has so far remained on paper, partly due to disputes about the Caspian Sea's legal status and Turkmenistan's refusal to sign production-sharing agreements with foreign companies for major deposits. See also:Most of Turkmenistan's oil is extracted by the Turkmenistan State Company (Concern) from fields at Koturdepe, and near the Caspian Sea, which have a combined estimated reserve of 700 million tons.
The oil extraction industry started with the exploitation of the fields in Cheleken in 1909 (by ) and in Balkanabat in the 1930s. Production leaped ahead with the discovery of the Kumdag field in 1948 and the Koturdepe field in 1959. A big part of the oil produced in Turkmenistan is refined in Turkmenbashy and Seidi refineries. Also, oil is exported by tankers through the Caspian Sea to Europe via canals. Energy Turkmenistan is a net exporter of electrical power to Central Asian republics and southern neighbors. The most important generating installations are the Hindukush Hydroelectric Station, which has a rated capacity of 350 megawatts, and the Mary Thermoelectric Power Station, which has a rated capacity of 1,370 megawatts.
In 1992, electrical power production totaled 14.9 billion kilowatt-hours. Agriculture. Main article:In Turkmenistan, most of irrigated land is planted with, making the country the world's ninth-largest cotton producer.During the 2011 season, Turkmenistan produced around 1.1 million tons of raw cotton, mainly from Mary, Balkan, Akhal, Lebap and Dashoguz provinces. In 2012, around 7,000 tractors, 5,000 cotton cultivators, 2,200 sowing machines and other machinery, mainly procured from and the, are being used. The country traditionally exports raw cotton to, and the. Main article: PopulationYearMillion04.520165.7Most of Turkmenistan's citizens are with sizeable minorities of. Smaller minorities include, (native to mountains),.
The percentage of ethnic dropped from 18.6% in 1939 to 9.5% in 1989. In 2012, it was confirmed that the population of Turkmenistan decreased due to some specific factors and is less than the previously estimated 5 million.The CIA World Factbook gives the ethnic composition of Turkmenistan as 85% Turkmen, 5% Uzbek, 4% Russian and 6% other (2003 estimates ). According to data announced in Ashgabat in February 2001, 91% of the population are Turkmen, 3% are Uzbeks and 2% are Russians. Between 1989 and 2001 the number of Turkmen in Turkmenistan doubled (from 2.5 to 4.9 million), while the number of Russians dropped by two-thirds (from 334,000 to slightly over 100,000). Largest cities. Further information:There are a number of newspapers and monthly magazines published and online news-portal in Turkmenistan.
Turkmenistan currently broadcasts 7 national TV channels through satellite. They are Altyn asyr, Yashlyk, Miras, (in 7 languages), and Ashgabat.
There are no commercial or private TV stations. Articles published by the state-controlled newspapers are heavily censored and written to glorify the state and its leader.External videoInternet services are the least developed in Central Asia.
Access to internet services are provided by the government's company 'Turkmentelekom'. As of 31 December 2011, it was estimated that there were 252,741 internet users in Turkmenistan or roughly 5% of total population.
Education. Turkmeni students in university uniformEducation is universal and mandatory through the secondary level, the total duration of which was earlier reduced from 10 to 9 years; with the new President it has been decreed that from the 2007–2008 school year on, mandatory education will be for 10 years. From 2013 secondary general education in Turkmenistan is a three-stage secondary schools for 12 years according to the following steps: Elementary school (grades 1–3), High School – the first cycle of secondary education with duration of 5 years (4–8 classes), Secondary school – the second cycle of secondary education, shall be made within 4 years (9–12 classes). Architecture The task for modern Turkmen architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. Most buildings are faced with white. Major projects such as, have transformed the country's skyline and promotes its contemporary identity.Transportation.
Main article: Automobile transport Construction of new and modernization of existing roads has an important role in the development of the country. With the increase in traffic flow is adjusted already built roads, as well as the planned construction of new highways. Construction of roads and road transport has always paid great attention.
So, in 2004, Baimukhamet Kelov was removed from office by the Minister of road transport and highways Turkmenistan for embezzlement of public funds and deficiencies in the work. Air transport. 300ERTurkmenistan's cities of and both have scheduled commercial air service. The largest airport is, with regular international flights.
Additionally, scheduled international flights are available to Turkmenbashi. The principal government-managed airline of Turkmenistan is. It is also the largest airline operating in Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan Airlines' passenger fleet is composed only of aircraft. Air transport carries more than two thousand passengers daily in the country.
International flights annually transport over half a million people into and out of Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan Airlines operates regular flights to Moscow, London, Frankfurt, Birmingham, Bangkok, Delhi, Abu Dhabi, Amritsar, Kiev, Lviv, Beijing, Istanbul, Minsk, Almaty, Tashkent and St. Petersburg.Maritime transport. Main article:Rail is one of the main modes of transport in Turkmenistan. Trains have been used in the nation since 1876.
Originally, it was part of the, then the Central Asian Railway, after the, the railway network in Turkmenistan owned and operated by state-owned. The total length of railways is 3181 km. Passenger traffic railways of Turkmenistan is limited by national borders of the country, except in the areas along which the transit trains coming from Tajikistan to Uzbekistan and beyond. Locomotive fleet consists of a series of soviet-made locomotives 2TE10L, 2TE10U, 2M62U also have several locomotives made in China.
Shunting locomotives include Soviet-made TEM2, TEM2U, CME3. Currently under construction railway and Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Tajikistan.See also.